U.S.
Lacks Ammo for Next Economic Crisis
Policy
makers worry fiscal and monetary tools to battle a recession are in
short supply
By JON HILSENRATH
and
NICK TIMIRAOS
As the U.S. economic
expansion ages and clouds gather overseas, policy makers worry about
recession. Their concern isn’t that a downturn is imminent but
whether they will have firepower to fight back when one does arrive.
Money has been
Washington’s primary weapon in the decades since British economist
John Maynard Keynes proposed aggressive government spending to battle
the Great Depression. The U.S. generally injects cash into the
economy through interest-rate cuts, tax cuts or ramped-up federal
spending.
Those tools could be
hard to employ when the next dip comes: Interest rates are near zero,
and fiscal stimulus plans could be hampered by high levels of
government debt and the prospect of growing budget deficits to cover
entitlement spending on retired baby boomers.
Few economists
believe the U.S. is near recession. The economy seems to have
regained its footing after a first-quarter stumble, and Federal
Reserve officials are considering whether to raise short-term
interest rates for the first time in nearly a decade to ensure the
economy doesn’t overheat.
Even so, looming
threats are a reminder that the slow-growing global economy is just a
shock away from peril. Japan’s economy contracted in the second
quarter and Europe recorded lackluster growth. China’s slowdown,
meanwhile, appears more severe than global policy makers initially
realized and a currency devaluation there might spur trade frictions.
With the U.S.
expansion entering its seventh year, policy makers are planning how
to respond to the next downturn, which history shows is inevitable.
The current expansion is now 16 months longer than the average since
World War II, and none has lasted longer than a decade.
“The world economy
is like an ocean liner without lifeboats,” economists at HSBC Bank
wrote in a recent research note.
In the next
downturn, former Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke said in an interview, the
tools of government will be “more limited than usual, but they’re
not zero by any means.”
The Fed, for
example, could experiment with negative interest rates. A recession
also could force Congress and the White House to bridge Washington’s
partisan divide to strike a deal that pairs short-run stimulus with
long-run plans to reduce the deficit.
‘Live question’
“This is a very
live question,” said Douglas Elmendorf, the recently departed
director of the Congressional Budget Office. “Policy makers are
thinking about their backup, backup plans.”
The Fed’s strategy
of keeping interest rates low well into an expansion is intended to
help avoid a relapse into recession. Fed Chairwoman Janet Yellen has
described low rates as insurance against another downturn. That is
another reason officials intend to move slowly once they begin
nudging up rates.
Worries stretch to
the White House. “Federal fiscal policy will be a more important
tool in addressing future business cycles because monetary policy may
be more frequently constrained,” Jason Furman, the chairman of the
White House Council of Economic Advisers, said in an interview.
“That’s a big change in the way the economics profession sees the
world.”
The U.S. over the
past quarter century regularly turned to the Fed to provide stimulus
when the economy stumbled.
In the most recent
recession, short-term interest rates were pushed to near zero, then
the central bank embarked on massive—and controversial—bond-buying
programs to drive down long-term interest rates. The Fed also
promised to keep short-term interest rates low for an extended
period.
The tactics were
meant to make it easier for households to pay off debts, encourage
new borrowing and promote risk-taking; officials hoped that would
push investment and consumer spending higher.
The next downturn
could further expand Fed bondholdings, but with the central bank’s
balance sheet already exceeding $4 trillion, there are limits to how
much more the Fed can buy.
Mr. Bernanke said he
was struck by how central banks in Europe recently pushed short-term
interest rates into negative territory, essentially charging banks
for depositing cash rather than lending it to businesses and
households. The Swiss National Bank, for example, charges commercial
banks 0.75% interest for money they park, an incentive to lend it
elsewhere.
Economic theory
suggests negative rates prompt businesses and households to hoard
cash—essentially, stuff it in a mattress. “It does look like
rates can go more negative than conventional wisdom has held,” Mr.
Bernanke said.
Others, including
Sen. Bob Corker (R.,Tenn.), see only the Fed’s limits. “They
have, like, zero juice left,” he said.
Many economists
believe relief from the next downturn will have to come from fiscal
policy makers not the Fed, a daunting prospect given the
philosophical divide between the two parties.
Republicans doubt
federal spending expands the economy, and they seek to shrink rather
than grow government. Democrats, meanwhile, say government austerity
hobbles the economy, especially in a downturn.
At issue is how much
the U.S. can afford to borrow and spend to goose the economy out of
the next recession. The experience of the past recession has set off
sharp disagreement among economists.
Federal debt has
grown to 74% of national output, from 39% in 2008. To restrain
short-term budget deficits, Congress and the White House agreed
earlier this decade on a mix of spending cuts and tax increases. In
all, total state, local and federal government spending, adjusted for
inflation, shrank 3.3% since the recovery began in 2009, compared
with an average increase of 23.5% over comparable periods in past
postwar expansions.
While federal debt
is high by historical norms, the budget deficit has narrowed to
around 2.4% of national output. That provides the U.S. with a bit of
fiscal breathing room. Even with steady economic growth, however,
deficits are projected to surpass 3% by the end of the decade,
pushing debt higher still, according to the Congressional Budget
Office.
“If there’s
another recession, there will be pressure to expand the deficit
fairly rapidly to a level that is unprecedented in modern time,”
said Stephen King, senior economist at HSBC and author of the report
on the global economy’s lack of fiscal lifeboats.
No one knows how
much U.S. debt can grow without triggering an increase in inflation
and interest rates that would hobble investment and growth. “We
don’t have that much experience with countries carrying debt like
the level the U.S. has right now,” said Mr. Elmendorf, the budget
analyst.
Japan has driven
government debt to levels nearly twice its annual economic output,
yet its experience doesn’t provide clear guidance. The spending
hasn’t spurred significant growth; nor has the debt load driven up
government borrowing costs, as economic theory suggests it would.
In a controversial
2010 paper, Harvard University economists Kenneth Rogoff and Carmen
Reinhart said nations had slower growth after government debt
exceeded 90% of national output.
The paper drove
debate over government austerity and was later criticized by
researchers at the University of Massachusetts for flaws in
methodology and analysis. Mr. Rogoff and Ms. Reinhart said the
criticism was overblown.
Economists at
Moody’s Analytics say U.S. debt could increase another $5.6
trillion without much danger, enough money to shield against a repeat
of the 2007-09 financial crisis with similar financial rescue
spending.
International
Monetary Fund economists warn against undercutting growth by imposing
austerity programs when a debt crisis isn’t imminent.
Mr. Elmendorf sees
two potential misjudgments for the U.S. over the relationship between
growth and debt. The first, he said, would be to assume that higher
debt levels eliminate short-term fiscal policy tools in a recession.
The second would be to see no need to reduce government debt in the
long run.
Even if it were
clear that the U.S. could afford to boost spending or cut taxes,
partisan disagreements over Mr. Obama’s 2009 stimulus spending
stand in the way of a consensus on the benefits of fiscal policy in a
downturn.
The $787 billion
spending package “was so badly designed it probably gave fiscal
policy a bad name,” said Martin Feldstein, a Harvard University
professor and former economic adviser to President Ronald Reagan who
had earlier supported a large stimulus to address the financial
crisis.
“Any objective
observer would look at the $1 trillion-plus in stimulus money and say
that has not been effective in having the economy grow in a way that
is lasting,” said Rep. Tom Price, the Georgia Republican who chairs
the House Budget Committee.
The White House
disputes the criticism, noting the U.S. economic recovery has been
stronger than in developed nations that rejected fiscal stimulus.
And predictions that
rising debt levels would lead to higher inflation and soaring
interest rates have so far been wrong. Even though debt as a share of
GDP is nearly double where it was before the financial crisis struck,
interest rates have remained low.
“It feels like we
have a lot more fiscal space than you would have thought 10 years
ago,” said Mr. Furman, the White House economic adviser.
A related lesson of
the recent recovery, Mr. Furman said: If governments borrow for a
good reason, such as infrastructure spending to boost employment
during downturns, “it doesn’t appear as if the markets would
penalize us.”
Mr. Furman has been
trying to steer policies at the White House to prepare for the next
downturn. There are signs the next recession will be more difficult
to manage, he said, because of sharp cuts to state and local
governments, budgets that in previous downturns had acted as a
buffer.
Automatic programs
At the federal
level, the White House has focused on expanding programs that
automatically ramp up when the economy stumbles and fade away during
economic recovery.
In this year’s
budget proposal, for example, the Obama administration proposed
replacing the unemployment benefit system, which in past downturns
wasn’t expanded by Congress until well after a recession had begun.
The idea is to automatically boost the amount of insurance available
to unemployed workers when state unemployment rates reach certain
thresholds.
Opponents cite high
costs—officials said the overhaul would cost $50 billion over 10
years—and point to research suggesting that expanded unemployment
insurance can deter men and women from re-entering the workforce.
Compromise has been
elusive. After Republicans won control of the House in 2010, the
White House sought, unsuccessfully, a deal to raise revenues and curb
long-run growth in spending, in exchange for a short-run stimulus.
The next downturn
could return the two sides to the bargaining table. But lawmakers
will have less room to maneuver “because the entitlement side
hasn’t been addressed,” Mr. Corker said. “We haven’t dealt
with even the most basic elements.”
Mr. Feldstein and
Robert Rubin, the former Treasury Secretary under President Bill
Clinton, are calling for so-called revenue neutral incentive
policies, such as tax credits for business investment that offset
government costs by raising corporate taxes elsewhere.
The challenge is
that these policies “sound simple, but politically, it is really
hard,” said Glenn Hubbard, the dean of the Columbia Business School
who advised President George W. Bush through the 2001 recession. “We
have very little cushion for whoever the next president is and the
next congressional leaders if they had to deal, gosh, with anything.”
Write to Jon
Hilsenrath at jon.hilsenrath@wsj.com and Nick Timiraos at
nick.timiraos@wsj.com